Dog Appeasing Pheromone
Katy Taylora and Daniel S. Mills, a,
aAnimal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Group, University of Lincoln, Department of
Biological Sciences, Riseholme Park, Lincoln LN2 2LG, UK
Available online 29 November 2006.
Abstract
Disturbance and house soiling during the night are common problems faced by the new
puppy dog owner. They may result as consequence of a mismatch between the
developmental status of the puppy and its new environment and/or separation distress in
a typically social animal. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of Dog Appeasing
Pheromone (DAP, Ceva Santé Animale) as well as a range of other management and
environmental factors that might affect this process. It has been suggested that DAP may
help the puppy settle into the new home by continuing the provision of the maternal
appeasing pheromone. In order to test this, a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of
DAP was conducted with 60 pedigree puppies, aged between 6 and 10 weeks, as they
entered their new home. A few days prior to the puppy's arrival, volunteer owners were
supplied with either a verum or placebo plug-in diffuser designed for the slow release of
the pheromone analogue over 4 weeks. Owners reported daily on disturbance and house
soiling during the previous night over the following 8 weeks from the puppy's first night in
the new home. The effect of the treatment together with the gender of the puppy, its
maternal environment, the use of a puppy crate, sleeping with other dogs at night and the
experience of the owner were included in a general linear model to explain the total
number of nights spent disturbing and house soiling. Sleeping with another dog reduced
the puppies’ tendency to disturb at night to almost zero. Over 70% of puppies sleeping
alone disturbed during the first night. The mean total number of nights of disturbance
over the 2 months was between five and six nights, mostly in the first week in the home. A
significant effect of DAP treatment was found in the case of the gundog breeds only (p =
0.003), gundogs receiving placebo cried for a median of nine nights, those receiving
verum cried for a median of three nights. No effect of DAP treatment was observed on the
total number of nights that the puppy soiled the house (p > 0.05). However, puppies that
were placed in crates during the night (p = 0.004) or had come from domestic maternal
environments (p = 0.006) had significantly fewer reports of house soiling over the first 2
months in the new home.
Keywords: Crate; Dog; House soiling; Maternal environment; Pheromone; Puppy;
Separation distress; Vocalisation
Article Outline
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Recruitment of volunteers
2.2. Allocation of treatments
2.3. Assessment of disturbance and house soiling at night
2.4. Other independent variables
2.5. Statistical analyses
3. Results
3.1. Effect of the presence of another dog
3.2. Progression of disturbance and house soiling in single puppies
3.3. Risk factors for disturbance at night
3.4. Risk factors for house soiling at night
4. Discussion
5. Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
1. Introduction
It is widely recognised that entry into a new home is a stressful time for a new pet dog. For
youngsters it may coincide with removal of the mother and littermates as well as
transferral from a familiar location to a completely novel one ([Elliot and Scott, 1961],
[Pettijohn et al., 1977], [Slabbert and Rasa, 1993] and [Serpell and Jagoe, 1995]). In
particular, being placed in isolation, whether this is from conspecifics or other species
including humans, may result in separation distress which is typified by high frequency
vocalisations and escape attempts ([Elliot and Scott, 1961], [Cairns and Werboff, 1967],
[Cohen and Fox, 1976], [Pettijohn et al., 1977] and [Gurski et al., 1979]). Separation
protest is an adaptive behaviour in puppies since it phylogentically serves to help reunite
the puppy with its mother or other conspecifics thus maximising its safety ([Cohen and
Fox, 1976] and [Voith and Borchelt, 1996]). The tendency to protest vocally when isolated
tends to peak at around 6–9 weeks of age (Elliot and Scott, 1961). Unfortunately this
coincides with the popular age for adoption of the puppy into the family home. Puppies
are usually isolated during the night in the home and, perhaps as a result, disturbance at
night primarily by vocalisation is a commonly reported problem for new puppy owners
(Askew, 1996). Another challenge for the new puppy owner is housetraining. Soiling in the
house by the puppy when unsupervised, such as during the night, may reflect
developmental immaturity and/or separation distress (Voith and Borchelt, 1996).
Although typically both disturbance and house soiling during the night resolve over time
(Askew, 1996), as the puppy ages and adjusts to its new environment, the average length of
time for which the puppy presents with these problems has not been well documented. In
addition, a number of factors may explain the incidence and length of time for which
puppies present with these behaviours. Scott and Fuller (1965), Gurski et al. (1979) and
Pettijohn et al. (1977) reported some differences between breeds in tendency to protest
vocally. Bradshaw et al. (2002) reported both breed and gender differences in tendency
towards separation anxiety in juvenile dogs. The environment into which the puppy is
being placed may also affect its development. For example, the experience of the owner
with other dogs may affect their ability to settle and train their new puppy. Separation
related and other problems have been associated with first-time owners ([Jagoe and
Serpell, 1996] and [Ledger, 2000]). Similarly, the presence of other dogs in the home may
also provide some continuity in the puppy's environment and in particular prevent
disturbance at night. For example, Pettijohn et al. (1977) reported that separation distress
could be significantly alleviated by the presence of a conspecific. The environment from
which the puppy has just been removed may also have an effect. In a retrospective study,
Appleby et al. (2002) found that dogs that were reportedly reared in non-domestic
maternal environments, i.e. kennels or outhouses, were more likely to present with
problems relating to aggression and avoidance behaviour in later life. This may be due to
reduced opportunities for socialisation and other learning experiences in these
environments. Non-domestic maternal environments may therefore be expected to also
have a more immediate effect on the puppy's ability to settle into the new home. Finally,
the use of puppy crates may also have an effect on disturbance and house soiling during
the night. These are cages or pens that contain the puppy in a relatively small space and
are typically used for house training purposes or to limit the effects of puppy chewing or
separation anxiety (Voith and Borchelt, 1996). However, their efficacy at actually
reducing elimination has not been reported in the scientific literature.
Disturbance and house soiling also impact on the owner in addition to suggesting that the
puppy is having difficulty adjusting to its new environment. While they continue, the
owner may suffer from disturbance in sleep patterns and inconvenience in addition to
anxiety regarding the welfare of the puppy. It is important that such behaviours are
resolved rapidly since they can also negatively affect the relationship between dog and
owner. Both inappropriate elimination and separation related behaviours are commonly
given reasons for relinquishment of the dog to an animal rescue shelter ([Patronek, 1996],
[Wells and Hepper, 2000] and [Miller et al., 1996]). Owners may be tempted to return to
the puppy and comfort it when it vocalises which may encourage the problem further
(Askew, 1996). The alternative may be to allow the puppy to sleep near the owner.
However, perhaps because of perceived difficulties with reversing this behaviour when
the puppy is older, and the possibility of its perceived contribution to separation related
or aggressive behaviour in the future ([Askew, 1996] and [Jagoe and Serpell, 1996]), this
may not be widely adopted. Owners report using hot water bottles, soft toys and music to
sooth the puppy but, to date, none have been shown to be consistently effective.
Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP, Ceva Santé Animale, France) is a synthetic analogue of
the maternal appeasing pheromone which is thought to promote reassurance and
attachment of the puppy to the mother (Pageat, 1999). It can be delivered into the home
via a plug-in air diffuser and has been reported to be useful in relieving canine anxiety
associated with firework noises (Sheppard and Mills, 2003), travelling (Gandia Estelles
and Mills, 2006), being left alone (Gaultier et al., 2005) and within the rescue shelter
environment (Tod et al., 2005). In all these situations, tendency to vocalise in particular
was reduced. However, these studies have largely involved adult dogs, but since this
pheromone is produced when the bitch is suckling her puppies, it was hypothesised that
continued provision in the new home may also help familiarise the environment to the
puppy and thus comfort them particularly when they are left alone. This hypothesis was
further supported by case studies by the second author (Mills, unpublished data) which
have suggested that DAP is useful in helping puppies settle into their new home by
reducing the frequency of disturbed nights and maintaining the puppy's emotional
stability. However, there have been no controlled studies of the effect of DAP on
vocalisation at night by puppies.
Therefore the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of DAP on disturbance and
house soiling at night, taking into account other factors such as gender, breed and
differences in previous and current environment. Control for the non-specific effects of
treatment was accommodated through the use of a placebo device, and due to the usual
resolution of the problem with age, comparison within subjects was not possible.
Comparison in the number of reports of house soiling and disturbance was therefore made
between two groups of puppies in the form of a longitudinal, randomised, controlled trial.
2. Methods
2.1. Recruitment of volunteers
Volunteer participants were sought from members of the public who had placed an order
for a puppy with one of a number of pedigree dog breeders in the local area. In order to be
suitable for inclusion onto the trial, puppies had to be healthy, still in the possession of the
breeder prior to the start of the trial, expected to be between 6 and 10 weeks of age when
adopted and going to new homes, i.e. not remaining with the breeder. A few days prior to
the puppy's expected arrival in the new home, the owner was visited by the researcher
(KT). The method of assessment of the puppy's behaviour was explained, informed
consent obtained and a diffuser (containing either placebo or DAP) installed in the room
where the puppy was expected to rest during the night. Recruitment onto the trial ceased
when 60 owners had joined the trial.
2.2. Allocation of treatments
The study was conducted as a double-blind, placebo-controlled, longitudinal study. Sixty
diffusers designed for the slow release of DAP into a room over 4 weeks were made
available for the study (Ceva Santé Animale, France). Thirty of these diffusers contained
DAP (verum) and 30 contained the mineral oil carrier fluid only (placebo). The diffusers
were labelled as A or B to enable balancing of the recruited subjects with respect to age at
adoption, breed group and the presence of another dog in the home, after the first 30
subjects had been allocated by random number generation. Recruits from the same litter
were difficult to obtain, but where this did occur, supply of diffusers was also balanced.
The identity of A and B was not released to the researcher, trial supervisor or recruits
until all the statistical analyses had been completed.
2.3. Assessment of disturbance and house soiling at night
Puppies were monitored for the purposes of the trial for a total of 8 weeks following their
adoption. Owners were requested to indicate on a personalised calendar whether during
the night the puppy had: (1) ‘disturbed them’ and (2) ‘gone to the toilet’. Owners were
instructed that disturbance included primarily vocalisation but also persistent scratching
at the door and that going to the toilet included urination and defecation. ‘During the night’
included the time from being left alone for the night to the time in the morning the owner
would normally intend to rise. They were instructed to complete the form the following
morning of each night. Contact by telephone was made by the same researcher during the
first, fourth and eighth week after adoption in order to check compliance.
2.4. Other independent variables
A range of details regarding each puppy were also recorded for the purposes of explaining
the variation in disturbance and house soiling. These are listed in Table 1 together with the
numbers of puppies revealed to be in each category.
Table 1.
Factors included in the general linear model to explain disturbance and house soiling, with
the number of puppies each category (N = 60) Factor
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Group (number of puppies)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Treatment Verum (30), placebo (30)
Gender Female (33), male (27)
Breed Gundogs (25), terriers (16), working (12), hounds (3), utility (3), toy (1) (British
Kennel Club groupings)
Use of a puppy crate Routinely placed into a puppy crate at night (29), free-roaming
within room (31)
Owner experience Owner had, as an adult, previously owned a dog (44), no experience (16)
Maternal environment Non-domestic (35), domestic (25)
Presence of another dog at night Slept alone (49), slept with another dog, not crated apart
(11)
2.5. Statistical analyses
A regression equation was fitted to the proportion of puppies reported to house soil and
disturb each of the first 56 nights in the new home. As an exploratory analysis, a general
linear model (GLM; Minitab v13.3, Minitab, Inc., USA 2000) was fitted to firstly, the total
number of nights the puppy was reported to disturb the owner, and secondly, the total
number of nights the puppy was reported to soil the house, during the night over the 8-
week period. For each model, the fixed effect of treatment and the random effects of sex,
breed (gundog or other), use of puppy crate, owner's experience and maternal
environment were included as explanatory factors. Each factor therefore had one degree
of freedom and an approximately equal proportion of puppies in each group. The least
significant factors and interactions were serially removed to decrease the degrees of
freedom in each model. When all remaining factors in the model had a p-value of less than
0.1, first-order interactions were included to assess any improvement in the model, but
were removed if there was none. Post hoc analysis was carried out using a non-parametric,
two-sample test on the total number of nights spent house soiling or disturbing between
groups as described (Mann–Whitney; Minitab v13.3, Minitab, Inc., USA 2000).
3. Results
3.1. Effect of the presence of another dog
Following the recruitment of volunteers, it was reported to the authors, that some adult
dogs produce an appeasing pheromone similar to DAP from the base of their ears (Pageat,
personal communication). As a consequence of this finding, 11 puppies that slept with
other dogs were removed from the analysis since they may have been in receipt of
additional, uncontrolled pheromone treatment. Post hoc analysis indeed found a
significant effect of sleeping with another dog on reports of disturbance (Mann–Whitney;
N = 49 (without dog), N = 11 (with dog), W = 1691.5, p < 0.001). Puppies sleeping with
another dog cried a median of zero nights (range 0–3), compared to four (range 0–25) for
those sleeping alone. No effect of sleeping with another dog was found for house soiling
(Mann–Whitney; N = 49 (without dog), N = 11 (with dog), W = 397.5, p = 0.240).
3.2. Progression of disturbance and house soiling in single puppies
Puppies were a mean of 8.3 weeks of age at adoption (std. dev. 1.3 weeks) and were
typically left alone in a downstairs room at night. Puppies not sleeping with other dogs
were reported to disturb their owners for a mean of 5.5 nights over the first 56 nights in
the home, however there was a large range to this reported occurrence, see Table 2.
Seventy-one percent of puppies sleeping alone were reported to disturb during the first
night in the new home irrespective of treatment, see Fig. 1. The proportion of puppies
reported to disturb decreased logarithmically during the first week, with 22% being
reported to have disturbed on the seventh night. By the end of the 14th night in the new
home less than 15% of puppies were reported to disturb on any given night and after the
28th night only one or two puppies were reported to disturb intermittently. The line of
best fit represented a log-linear regression; log10 (proportion of puppies disturbing) =
0.46–0.03 night (R-squared = 81.3%, d.f. 1, 36, p < 0.001).
Reports of house soiling had a longer time to resolution than disturbance, with puppies
soiling on average 23.4 nights during the first 56 nights in the new home, see Table 2.
Eight-four percent of puppies were reported to soil their living area during their first night
in the new home, see Fig. 1. Decrease in reports of house soiling appeared to be more
linear than for disturbance, with 65% soiling on the 7th night, 59% soiling on the 14th
night, 53% on the 21st and 45% on the 28th night in the new home. Towards the end of the
study period (8 weeks) 10–20% of puppies were still being reported to be unable to
control their elimination during the night. The line of best fit represented a linear
regression; proportion of puppies house soiling = 0.74–0.01 night (R-squared = 94.3%, d.
f. 1, 54, p < 0.001).
3.3. Risk factors for disturbance at night
Two puppies, one from each treatment group, were reported to disturb for a prolonged
period (23 and 25 nights in total, 12 nights more than the next puppy). They were
contributing inordinately to the degree of variation in this variable and for this reason
were removed from further analysis. After sequential knockout of the least significant
factors, the general linear model retained the factors ‘treatment’ and ‘breed’, with a
significant interaction occurring between the two (p = 0.003), see Table 3.
Table 3.
The interaction between treatment and breed was explored post hoc and was found to
represent a treatment effect for the largest breed group, namely ‘gundogs’. Gundogs in
receipt of DAP were reported to disturb for a median of three nights. Gundogs in receipt of
placebo were reported to disturb for a median of nine nights in total (Mann–Whitney test;
N = 14 (DAP), N = 7 (placebo), W = 117.5, p = 0.003). There was no significant difference
in reported disturbance at night between treatment groups amongst the other breeds (p >
0.05), with both groups being reported to disturb for a median of three nights. This result
is illustrated in Fig. 2 using the mean total number of disturbed nights.
Display Full Size version of this image (17K)
Fig. 2. The mean total number of nights that gundogs (DAP N = 14, placebo N = 7) and
other breeds (DAP N = 9, placebo N = 17) were reported to disturb at night during the first
8 weeks in the new home (standard error bars are shown).
Since gundogs appear to disturb for longer periods in the absence of DAP, this
intervention might therefore prevent prolonged disturbance in those puppies that show a
tendency to disturb. To test this hypothesis, the total number of disturbed nights was
compared between treatment groups using only those puppies with a tendency to disturb
(classified post hoc as those that disturbed on at least two of the first three nights in the
new home). A significant effect of treatment was found (Mann–Whitney; N = 15 (DAP), N
= 14 (placebo), W = 173.5, p = 0.025). Irrespective of breed, puppies with a tendency to
cry disturbed their owner for a median of three nights if they were in receipt of DAP.
Those with a tendency to cry that were in receipt of placebo cried for a median of seven
nights.
3.4. Risk factors for house soiling at night
Maternal environment and use of a puppy crate were significant random factors in the
final general linear model explaining the total number of nights reported to soil the house,
see Table 4. An interaction between these two factors did not improve the model. Puppies
that were crated at night were reported to soil their living area for a median total of 10
nights compared to 30 nights if left unrestricted (Mann–Whitney; N = 26 (crated), N = 23
(not crated), W = 507.5, p = 0.004). The maternal environment the puppy came from had
a similar effect on reports of house soiling. Puppies from domestic maternal environments
were reported to soil the house a median total of 16 nights compared to 30 for those from
non-domestic environments (Mann–Whitney; N = 26 (non-domestic), N = 23 (domestic),
W = 787.5, p = 0.006). There was no significant effect of treatment on total number of
nights the puppy was reported to soil the house during the first 8 weeks in the new home (p
> 0.05).
4. Discussion
Disturbance and house soiling during the night in recently adopted puppies are behaviours
that appear to reflect a mismatch between the developmental status of the puppy and its
new environment. They may or may not also include separation distress on the part of the
puppy. In this study both problems were reported in the majority of single puppies during
their first night in the new home. Disturbance at night appeared to resolve more rapidly
than house soiling, which might suggest that it is an acute response to separation that is
less affected by developmental/training factors. The average puppy continued to disturb
for another four or five more nights, mostly during the first week, although a proportion
of puppies disturbed for substantially longer. House soiling improved linearly, with nearly
50% of the puppies still soiling after 1 month. Between 10 and 20% remained untrained, at
least through the night, after the first 2 months in the new home.
The study provided evidence to suggest that DAP can help prevent the tendency for
prolonged disturbance at night. However, another study would be required to assess its
efficacy as a treatment of the problem in individuals already showing signs. It is
hypothesised that the initial introduction into the new home and subsequent isolation at
night may be so stressful that any effect of DAP at this time is overwhelmed. Since those
puppies in the study that had another dog with which to sleep rarely disturbed their owner,
it would seem that physical access to a conspecific at this time may be the most effective
buffer of the problem. This may be because they also provide a source of appeasing
pheromone to the puppy (Pageat, personal communication) in addition to their physical
presence.
Puppies that were not sleeping with another dog and showed a tendency to disturb at night
during the first 3 days in the new home tended not to continue to disturb in the presence of
DAP. Those with a tendency to disturb that were not in the presence of DAP tended to
continue to disturb on more occasions. The apparent breed effect might have arisen
because gundogs were more likely than other breeds to disturb at night for a prolonged
period in the absence of DAP, but the effect was strongest when considering breed rather
than tendency for prolonged crying. It is believed that the chemical structure of the
pheromone itself is not breed-specific (Pageat, 1999) and no other reports of a breed
interaction have been published. The breeds representing gundogs in this study included
mostly Labrador retrievers, Weimeraners and Spaniels. A recent longitudinal study found
that Labrador retrievers were more likely than border collies to be reported with
separation related behaviours between 3 and 18 months of age (Bradshaw et al., 2002).
Gundog breeds are particularly popular as family pets and selection for increased
sociability and ability to recall may have resulted in animals that cope less well to
separation, particularly from humans. However, as the study by Bradshaw et al. (2002)
found that the Labradors also received more social referencing from their breeders than
the collies, this effect may reflect differences in early environment as opposed to genuine
genetic tendencies. No gundogs were used in the early studies of Scott and Fuller (1965),
Gurski et al. (1979) and Pettijohn et al. (1977) on separation protest so no comparison
with their work can be made. The apparent relationship between separation distress and
response to treatment in gundogs is worthy of further investigation through another study
involving fewer breeds and more dogs.
House soiling during the night was most influenced by prior and current environmental
factors, both of which may be related to training. Puppies that were reared in domestic
environments (i.e. within the breeder's home) were less likely to be reported to house soil
during the night than those from non-domestic environments (i.e. kennels and outhouses).
One explanation for this may be that breeders in domestic settings are in a better position
to begin early house training, whether this is by conscious effort on their part or more
simply, by allowing the puppies to follow the mother outside to eliminate. This finding
may therefore be seen to support the suggestion in Appleby et al. (2002) that non-
domestic maternal environments provide fewer opportunities for early learning than
domestic environments. Appleby et al. (2002) found evidence for a more long term effect
of maternal environment on behaviour; this study provides an additional short term
effect. The effect of a domestic maternal environment appears to speed up housetraining
overnight by an order of two, although house soiling at night may not necessarily be an
accurate measure of house training during the day. Independently to this, there also
appears to be a similar, slightly larger effect of crating the puppy over night on house
soiling. Since owners were asked if the puppy ‘went to the toilet’ this effect of crating
appears to be real and not a reflection of any misunderstanding between elimination and
house soiling. The theory behind crating is that the puppy will resist soiling its own
bedding and so learns more rapidly to hold its bladder, however, it may also be that
crating limits access to water and exercise, both of which may have more impact on the
tendency to urinate (Voith and Borchelt, 1996). Although the effect of crating on house
training per se cannot be assessed as part of this study it does appear at least to
significantly reduce the tendency to eliminate during the night.
No evidence could be found for an effect of gender of puppy on disturbance at night or
house soiling. By contrast, the cross-sectional study of Bradshaw et al. (2002) found an
association between gender and reports of current separation related behaviour, although
their longitudinal study did not. Flannigan and Dodman (2001) also failed to find evidence
of a relationship between gender and separation anxiety. The lack of evidence of an effect
of the experience of the owner is perhaps surprising since the experience of the owner has
been linked to problems in adult dogs, including separation related behaviour ([Jagoe and
Serpell, 1996] and [Ledger, 2000]). However, since most owners had some experience of
owning a dog a large discrepancy between groups may be necessary in order to have
confidence of observing an effect with this sample size. Voith and Borchelt (1996) also
noted that speed of house training may have more to do with the fastidiousness of the
owner as a house keeper rather than their experience as a dog owner. Age of the dog is
likely to have an effect on both problems, but since most puppies were between 7 and 9
weeks of age it was not included as a factor in this study.
It might be argued that the measures of disturbance and house soiling used in this study
were crude in that neither the quality nor quantity of the disturbance or house soiling
during each night was recorded. However, these simpler recording methods should be less
subject to rater bias and so potentially allow a more accurate assessment of the behaviours
that are considered a problem to the owner. The simpler method may have also have
contributed to the excellent retention of participants and compliance. Nonetheless, a
further study looking more specifically at the volume, frequency, type and duration of the
disturbance during each night might provide more information about both breed
tendencies and the more subtle effects of interventions.
The relationship between tendency to protest at night when initially adopted and tendency
to perform separation related behaviours as a juvenile and adult is not fully understood. A
connection between the two may be seen in the observation that the vocalisations
associated with separation anxiety in adult dogs resemble the high frequency protest calls
of young puppies (Overall et al., 1999). If DAP prevents prolonged disturbance at night at
the adoption stage in a puppy's life then it may also do so at other sensitive developmental
or environmental periods. It remains to be seen whether there are any other long term
effects on behaviour.
5. Conclusion
Crying at night is unlikely to occur in the presence of other dogs and so where puppies are
going to a home with other dogs they should be allowed to sleep with them, if is safe to do
so. Where puppies are going to homes with no other dogs, DAP may help to reduce the
likelihood of prolonged disturbance at night, particularly if the puppy is a gundog. Puppies
that are kept in puppy crates during the night or have come from domestic maternal
environments had fewer reports of house soiling during the night, which may reflect faster
housetraining.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ceva Santé Animale, France for support of the first
author and provision of the verum and placebo diffusers. The authors would also like to
thank the breeders who supplied volunteers and to the puppy owners themselves for their
efforts.
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This paper is part of the special issue entitled “Veterinary Behavioural Medicine” guest
edited by Daniel Mills and Gary Landsberg.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1522 895356; fax: +44 1522 895328.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science
Volume 105, Issue 4, July 2007, Pages 358-368
Veterinary Behavioural Medicine
| A placebo-controlled study to investigate the effect of Dog Appeasing Pheromone and other environmental and management factors on the reports of disturbance and house soiling during the night in recently adopted puppies (Canis familiaris) |